Fig. 1 ( a ) Global sales and market share of electric cars, 2010–2021 (reproduced with data from IEA, Paris under license CC BY 4.0 [ 1 ]). ( b ) Schematic of EVs under extreme conditions (made with icons from Openclipart under license CC0 1.0). ( c ) Schematic of progress in battery thermal mana... More

Fig. 2 Schematic of Li-ion battery pack, module and cells. ( a ) Cell-to-module-to-pack structure; ( b ) cell-to-pack structure; [ 12 ], and ( c ) different formats of cells [ 13 ]. (Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature ©2016). More

Fig. 3 Schematic of basic components and working principle of a Li-ion cell More

Fig. 4 Effects of temperature on Li-ion battery. ( a ) Schematic, ( b ) effects on discharge performance [ 16 ] (Reprinted with permission from The Electrochemical Society) © 2014, ( c ) effects on lifetime [ 17 ] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier ©2014), and ( d ) thermal runaway of a Li-... More

Fig. 5 Heat generation rate of a commercial Li-ion cell at different charging and discharging rates [ 27 ] (Reused under license CC BY 4.0) More

Fig. 6 ( a ) Thermal runaway of a Li-ion cell triggered by nail penetration in Zhang's laboratory and ( b ) propagation of thermal runaway from one cell to other cells in a module (Reprinted with permission from The Electrochemical Society © 2019) [ 39 ] More

Fig. 7 Nonuniform temperature distribution in Li-ion cells. ( a ) Radial temperature distribution in a cylindrical cell [ 16 ] (Reprinted with permission from The Electrochemical Society © 2014); ( b ) temperature distribution across the thickness of a stack consisting of five parallel-connected p... More

Fig. 8 Cell-level and pack-level specific energy and energy density of some commercial EVs [ 12 ] (Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature © 2021) More

Fig. 9 Schematic of common cooling methods for Li-ion batteries [ 64 ] (Reused under license CC BY 4.0) More

Fig. 10 ( a ) Breakdown of total capacity loss at the end of life of an EV cell with 1 C charge; ( b ) aging rate versus temperature for the EV cell at various charge rates; and ( c ) contour plots showing the impacts of charge rate and temperature on the cycle life of EV cells. The aging rate and... More

Fig. 11 Nonuniform temperature distribution during thermal runaway of Li-ion cells triggered by nail penetration. ( a )Schematic of experimental setup and ( b ) measured temperatures and cell voltage [ 36 ] (Reused under license CC BY 4.0). More

Fig. 12 Regulation of interfacial thermal resistance between Li-ion batteries and heat sink by a thermal switch. ( a ) and ( b ) An ON–OFF thermal switch based on a shape memory alloy [ 91 ] (Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature © 2018); ( c )and ( d ) a continuously tunable thermal swit... More

Fig. 13 Self-heating Li-ion battery (All-Climate Battery). ( a ) Schematic of cell structure; ( b ) electric circuit representation of self-heating mode and baseline mode; ( c ) cell temperature during self-heating from −30 °C [ 98 , 99 ] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier © 2016); ( d ) and... More

Fig. 14 ATM for fast charging of energy-dense Li-ion batteries. ( a ) Schematic of ATM cell operation [ 103 ] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier © 2019); ( b )–( d ) fast charging of energy-dense (265 Wh/kg) Li-ion cells with thermally stable dual-salt electrolyte [ 104 ] (Reprinted with per... More

Fig. 15 Electrochemical–thermal coupled simulations of a 12S1P pack of 150 Ah prismatic cells with ATM and thermally stable electrolyte. ( a ) Cell construction, pack model and thermal conditions under aspirated air convection; ( b ) 3D temperature difference contours in 150 Ah prismatic cells at ... More

Fig. 16 Principle and advantages of a SEB cell versus a conventional LIB cell. ( a ) Schematic showing enhanced interfacial layers. ( b ) DC resistance varies with the inverse of temperature, where the upper curve for the SEB is always safer due to higher DC resistance. The SEB can, however, achie... More

Fig. 17 Smart cells with embedded sensors. ( a ) and ( b ) Schematic of a smart cell with embedded internal temperature sensor for enhanced safety [ 108 ]; ( c ) schematic of a smart cell with embedded wireless sensors [ 109 ]. (Reused under license CC BY 4.0). More

Fig. 18 Smart cells with a bifunctional separator for early detection of lithium dendrite growth [ 114 ] (Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature © 2014) More

Fig. 19 Bifunctional use of the nickel foil in SHLB cell as both a heater and temperature sensor. ( a ) Dependence of the foil resistance on temperature and ( b ) measured foil temperature and surface temperature with different SHLB designs [ 99 ] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier © 2016).... More